When pursuing your Commercial Pilot License (CPL) or Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) certification, having access to comprehensive study materials is crucial for success. These materials will guide you through the extensive knowledge needed to become proficient in areas such as flight operations, air traffic control procedures, navigation, regulations, and emergency procedures. With a solid understanding of these topics, you’ll be well-prepared to tackle both written exams and flight tests.
Commercial and ATP studies cover a broad range of subjects, including advanced aerodynamics, aviation weather, complex aircraft systems, and more. To navigate through these topics efficiently, it’s important to have a structured study plan and reliable resources. The right study materials will help you grasp complex concepts and apply them effectively, giving you the confidence to pass your exams and become a skilled, knowledgeable pilot.
This guide serves as an introduction to the essential materials, ensuring you’re equipped with the necessary tools to excel in both the CPL and ATP exams. Let’s dive into the key study resources and strategies that will set you on the path to success.
Pilot Privileges and Legal Considerations
Privileges of a Commercial Pilot
What are the privileges of a commercial pilot?
A commercial pilot has the privilege to act as Pilot in Command (PIC) of an aircraft, allowing them to transport people or property for compensation or hire.
Holding Out and Common Carriage
What is holding out?
Holding out is the act of offering to transport people or property for compensation, signaling a willingness to provide these services.
What is common carriage?
Common carriage refers to flying for hire that involves holding out—offering to transport people or property for compensation.
When is holding out indicative of common carriage?
This happens when an aviation business publicly advertises its services, offering transportation to the public. For a commercial pilot, holding out typically refers to applying for a job, rather than offering the service themselves.
Private Carriage
What is private carriage?
Private carriage is flying for hire, but without holding out, meaning the operator does not advertise a willingness to transport the public.
Ensuring Legal Flight Operations
How do you ensure a flight operation is legal?
To make sure the operation is legal:
- The owner/operator must not sell seats or cargo space.
- The flight should not generate revenue.
- Passengers should be traveling for related purposes.
- The operation should not involve too many aircrafts or contracts.
- No short-term contracts.
- Avoid holding out.
If you were a CFI, could you advertise your plane and services for a fee?
Yes, according to Part 119(e), you can.
Part 119 and AOC Requirements
What is Part 119?
Part 119 allows common carriage without requiring an operator certificate for specific services like flight instruction, non-stop air tours within 25 nautical miles of the airport (with an FAA LOA), ferrying, banner towing, and aerial photography.
When is a 125 certificate required?
A 125 certificate is needed when the aircraft’s payload exceeds 6,000 lbs or can carry 20 or more passengers.
Scenarios
Scenario 1
Scenario 1: After passing your commercial checkride, you stop flying. Ten years later, you see a job posting for a position where, in exchange for a salary, you’d be on-call to fly the owner to meetings across the U.S. The aircraft is a Kodiak 100 (700 hp), most flying will be IFR, and you’d be the owner’s employee. Is this a commercial job and does it require an AOC?
This is a Part 91 operation, and no AOC is required because the flying is incidental to the business and does not generate revenue for the operator.
Scenario 2: After passing your commercial checkride, you stop flying. Ten years later, you see a job posting for a position where, in exchange for a salary, you’d be on-call to fly the owner to meetings across the U.S. Can you reach out to the owner and apply for the job?
Yes, you can apply. However, flying or acting as PIC can only happen once your currency is established and you receive the appropriate endorsements (e.g., HP).
Pilot Currency and Medical Requirements
Currency Requirements
When is night currency required?
Night currency landings must be completed within one hour after sunset or one hour before sunrise.
When can you log night time?
Night time is logged from the end of evening civil twilight to the beginning of morning civil twilight.
When can you log PIC time?
PIC time is logged when the pilot is rated in the aircraft and is the sole manipulator of the controls. This includes solo students, flight instructors providing instruction, and safety pilots when the other pilot is using a view-limiting device.
Medical Requirements
Can you act as PIC if you get sick after passing your medical exam?
No, pilots must comply with medical requirements outlined in 61.53.
Where are the medical standards?
Medical standards are found in Part 67.
Can a pilot with a history of epilepsy or substance abuse ever get a medical?
They can apply for a special issuance or a Statement of Demonstrated Ability (SODA).
How do you apply for a SODA?
To apply, contact your local FSDO, which will provide guidance for submitting the request to the FAA Federal Air Surgeon.
What is a special issuance?
A special issuance is granted for progressive conditions and is renewed periodically.
What is a SODA?
A SODA is issued when a pilot has demonstrated proficiency despite having a medical condition.
Basic Med
What is Basic Med?
Basic Med allows pilots who fly recreationally to bypass the AME process by seeing their regular physician.
What are the requirements for Basic Med?
- U.S. Driver’s License
- Held a medical certificate after July 14, 2006
- Bring the Basic Med Exam Checklist to a physician (every 48 months)
- Complete an online self-examination course (every 24 months)
- Keep the checklist and online certificate in your logbook.
What are the Basic Med limitations?
- Cannot fly for hire
- No flights above 18,000 ft
- Max speed of 250 knots
- Max takeoff weight of 6,000 lbs
- Cannot carry more than 6 occupants
- No more than 5 passengers
Requirements to Fly as PIC
What do you need to fly as PIC?
- Pilot certificate
- Government-issued photo ID
- Medical certificate
Proficiency vs. Currency
What’s the difference between proficiency and currency?
Proficiency ensures safety, while currency ensures legality.
Aircraft Airworthiness and Maintenance
What is Airworthy?
What is airworthy?
An aircraft is airworthy if it conforms to its original type design or has been properly altered, and it is in a condition for safe flight.
Maintaining Airworthiness
What keeps an airplane airworthy?
- Proper documents on board (ARROW)
- Inspections complied with (AVIATES)
- Instruments and equipment working or deactivated and placarded INOP.
Required Documents on Board
What documents are required on board?
- A: Airworthiness Certificate
- R: Registration Certificate
- R: Radio Operator Permit (for international flights)
- O: Owner’s Manual
- W: Weight and Balance
Required Inspections (AVIATES)
What inspections must be complied with?
- A: Airworthiness directives
- V: VOR (every 30 days for IFR)
- I: Inspections (Annual) (100-hour for hire)
- A: Altimeter (24 months)
- T: Transponder (24 months)
- E: ELT (12 months)
- S: Static Systems (24 months)
Airworthiness Certificate Validity
How long is an airworthiness certificate valid?
As long as required maintenance and inspections are up to date and the aircraft remains registered in the U.S.
Registration Certificate
Do registration certificates expire?
Yes, they expire every 7 years after the last day of the month.
What could cause the aircraft registration to be invalid, other than expiration?
The registration could be invalid if:
- 30 days have passed since the owner’s death
- The aircraft is registered in a foreign country
- Ownership is transferred
- The aircraft is destroyed or scrapped
- The certificate holder loses U.S. citizenship
- Registration is canceled upon written request from the certificate holder.
How can you register an aircraft?
You can register an aircraft through an online application at FAA.gov or by submitting a paper application to the FSDO.
Airworthiness Directives (ADs)
What is an airworthiness directive?
An airworthiness directive is a recall issued by the FAA to address unsafe conditions in an aircraft.
What are the different types of airworthiness directives?
- Emergency – Requires immediate compliance.
- Less than urgent – Must be completed within a specified timeframe.
- Conditional AD – Active under specific conditions.
Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin (SAIB)
What is a Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin (SAIB)?
A SAIB is issued by the FAA to alert, educate, and recommend safety improvements to the aviation community.
Is compliance with a SAIB mandatory?
No, SAIBs are advisory only.
Scenario
On 1/31/2024, you fly the plane to an airport and get stuck overnight due to weather. The aircraft’s annual inspection is now overdue by more than 12 calendar months. How do you get the plane back to its base for maintenance?
You can apply for a special flight permit.
How do you obtain a special flight permit?
Contact your local FSDO to request the permit.
Scenario: After obtaining the special flight permit, can the passengers fly back with you?
No, passengers cannot fly back with you under these conditions.
Scenario: On 1/31/2024, you fly the plane to an airport and get stuck there overnight due to weather. Once you obtain the special flight permit, can the crew fly back with you?
If they are required crew, then yes.
Flight Restrictions for Special Flight Permits
What are some flight restrictions for special flight permits?
- Day VMC conditions only
- Flight must be direct
- Valid for only the one flight
- No overflight of congested areas
Overflying Inspections
Can you overfly a 100-hour inspection?
Yes, you can overfly it by 10 hours if the plane is being flown somewhere for maintenance.
Maintenance Log Entries
What must be entered in inspection maintenance log entries?
- Type of inspection and a brief description of the extent of the inspection
- Date of the inspection and total time in service
- Signature, certificate number, and held by the person inspecting
- If the aircraft is airworthy, it would state that the person certifies it is inspected and airworthy.
Preventive Maintenance
What is preventive maintenance?
Simple or minor preservation operations and the replacement of small standard parts not involving complex assembly operations.
Flight Planning and Weather
Equipment for VFR Flight
What is required for day and night VFR flight?
Day:
- A: Airspeed indicator
- T: Tachometer
- O: Oil pressure gauge
- M: Manifold Pressure Gauge
- A: Altimeter
- T: Temperature Gauge
- O: Oil Temperature Gauge
- F: Fuel Gauge
- L: Landing Gear Position Indicator
- A: Anti-collision lights
- M: Magnetic Compass
- E: ELT
- S: Seatbelts
Night:
- F: Fuses
- L: Landing Lights
- A: Anti-collision lights
- P: Position lights
- S: Source of power
What is the order to follow for inoperative equipment?
MEL, Koel, Toel, 91. 205(b)(c), Airworthiness Directives
What is the Minimum Equipment List?
An FAA-approved Tail Number-specific list of equipment that can be inoperative in an aircraft.
What is a Kinds of Operation Equipment List?
A list of equipment that needs to be working for an aircraft to be airworthy.
Weather Planning
How do you justify your go/no-go decision when planning your VFR cross-country and prove you will not find any adverse weather conditions along the route?
- Using ForeFlight
- Aviationweather.gov
- Contacting 1-800-WX-Brief
What sorts of enroute weather would lead to a no-go decision for a VFR flight?
- Thunderstorms (METAR/TAF, Convective Sigmet)
- Any convective activity
- Excessive winds (windshear) (Winds Aloft)
- Excessive turbulence (Airmet, Sigmet, or Convective Sigmet)
- Low clouds/ceilings (METAR, Airmet Sierra)
- Icing conditions (Airmet Zulu, Icing Forecast)
- Heavy precipitation (Radar Imagery, METAR)
Weather Advisories
What is an Airmet?
An AIRMET is an advisory of significant weather phenomena that describes conditions at intensities lower than those required for the issuance of a SIGMET.
What are the three types of Airmets?
- Airmet Sierra (S) – Mountain obscuration or IFR
- Airmet Tango (T) – Turbulence (light-moderate turbulence, sustained surface winds of 30 knots or more)
- Airmet Zulu (Z) – Icing (light-moderate icing, freezing levels)
What is a Sigmet?
A SIGMET advises of non-convective weather that is potentially hazardous to all aircraft. Issued for the six areas corresponding to the FA areas.
- Severe icing not associated with a thunderstorm
- Severe or extreme turbulence or clear air turbulence (CAT) not associated with thunderstorms
- Dust storms or sandstorms lowering the surface or inflight visibilities to below 3 miles
- Volcanic ash
What is a Convective Sigmet?
Convective SIGMETs imply severe or greater turbulence, severe icing, and low-level wind shear.
- Surface winds greater than or equal to 50 knots
- Hail at the surface greater than or equal to 3/4 inches in diameter
- Embedded thunderstorms
Weather Phenomena
What is a ceiling?
The lowest broken or overcast layer.
How does fog occur?
Fog forms when the air temperature near the ground reaches its dew point, or when the dew point is raised to the existing temperature by added moisture to the air.
What are the different types of fog?
- Radiation fog: Occurs on calm, clear nights when the ground cools rapidly due to the release of ground radiation.
- Advection fog: Warm, moist air moves over a cold surface. Winds are required for advection fog to form.
- Ice fog: Forms when the temperature is much below freezing and water vapor turns directly into ice crystals. Common in the arctic but can also occur in mid-latitudes.
- Upslope fog: Moist, stable air is forced up a terrain slope and cooled down to its dew point by adiabatic cooling.
- Steam fog: Cold, dry air moves over warm water. Moisture is added to the airmass and steam fog forms.
How is a thunderstorm formed?
A thunderstorm forms with sufficient water vapor, an unstable temperature lapse rate, and an uplifting force.
What are the three stages of a thunderstorm?
- Cumulus (3-5 miles height): The lifting action of the air begins, growth rate may exceed 3000 fpm.
- Mature (5-10 miles height): Begins when precipitation starts falling from the cloud base. Updraft may exceed 6000 fpm. Downdrafts may exceed 2500 fpm. Thunderstorm hazards are at their greatest intensity in this stage.
- Dissipating (5-7 miles height): Characterized by strong downdrafts, the cell dies rapidly.
What are the dangers of a thunderstorm?
- Limited visibility
- Wind shear
- Strong updrafts/downdrafts
- Icing
- Hailstones
- Heavy rain
- Severe turbulence
- Lightning strikes and tornadoes
What is a microburst? Where are they found? What are their characteristics?
A microburst is a powerful downdraft, typically found near thunderstorms. It can reach 6,000′ and have a diameter of 1 to 2.5 miles at the base. They are very brief, lasting around 15 minutes.
What is the freezing lapse rate?
Every 1000 feet, the temperature drops by 2°C.
What are the different types of icing?
- Structural: Requires visible moisture and aircraft surface temperature below freezing.
- Clear: The most dangerous, it forms a smooth, solid sheet from large supercooled water droplets.
- Rime: Opaque and rough, formed by small supercooled droplets freezing quickly.
- Mixed: A combination of clear and rime ice.
- Instrument ice: Forms over aircraft instruments and sensors, like the pitot and static.
- Induction ice: Reduces the amount of air for engine intake.
- Intake ice: Blocks the engine intake.
- Frost: Ice crystals formed by sublimation when both the temperature and dew point are below freezing.
What are isobars?
Isobars are lines on a weather map that connect points of equal sea-level pressure.
What kind of weather would you expect to encounter in areas where the isobars are close together?
High winds, indicating a steep pressure gradient that makes the air more inclined to move.
What is a trough?
A trough is an elongated area of low pressure, often associated with poor weather. Low-pressure systems lead to updrafts, which promote convective activity.
What is a ridge?
A ridge is an elongated area of high atmospheric pressure. It’s an area of descending air, favoring the dissipation of cloudiness. High pressure generally means good weather.
What are the characteristics of stable air?
- Poor visibility
- Continuous precipitation
- Smooth air
- Stratus clouds
What are the characteristics of unstable air?
- Cumuliform clouds
- Showery precipitation
- Rough and turbulent air
- Good visibility
Airspace and Regulations
Class A Airspace Operating Rules
What are the operating rules in class A airspace?
- You must be a current instrument-rated pilot flying an instrument-equipped aircraft on an IFR flight plan.
- A Mode C capable transponder with ADS-B Out is required.
Required Equipment in Class B and C Airspace
What is the required equipment in class B and C airspace?
- Two-way radios
- Mode C capable transponder
- ADS-B Out
VFR Operating Rules
What are the VFR operating rules in class B airspace?
- 3 miles visibility
- Clear of clouds
What are the VFR operating rules in class C and D airspace?
- 3 miles visibility
- 1000 feet above
- 500 feet below
- 2 miles horizontally
What are the VFR operating rules in class E airspace? Below 10,000 ft, the rules are 3152, and above 10,000 ft, the rules are 5111.
Below 10,000 ft:
- 3 miles visibility
- 1000 feet above
- 500 feet below
- 2 miles horizontally
Above 10,000 ft:
- 5 miles visibility
- 1000 feet above
- 1000 feet below
- 1 mile horizontally
What are the VFR operating rules in class G airspace? During the day, below 1,200 feet, you need 1 statute mile visibility and be clear of clouds. At night, below 1,200 feet, the rules are 3152.
Day, below 1,200 feet:
- 1 statute mile visibility
- Clear of clouds
Night, below 1,200 feet:
- 3 miles visibility
- 1000 feet above
- 500 feet below
- 2 miles horizontally
Required Equipment in Class D Airspace
What is the required equipment in class D airspace?
- You need two-way radios.
- If a mode C transponder is installed, it must be on.
Special Use Airspaces
What are the different types of special use airspaces?
There are:
- M – MOA (Military Operations Area)
- C – Controlled Firing
- P – Prohibited
- R – Restricted
- A – Alert
- W – Warning
- N – National Security Area
Aircraft Systems and Aerodynamics
Atmospheric Science
Describe the composition of the atmosphere.
The atmosphere is made up of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and small amounts of water vapor, argon, carbon dioxide, and ozone.
What is atmospheric pressure?
It’s the pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere. The molecules in the air have mass, and gravity pulls on them, causing pressure when the molecules collide with something.
What happens to air pressure as altitude increases?
As altitude increases, the weight of the atmosphere decreases, which means air pressure also decreases.
What are the three types of oxygen systems?
The types are:
- Continuous Flow
- Diluter Demand
- Pressure Demand
Altitude and Airspeed
What is the definition of pressure altitude?
Pressure altitude is the height above the standard datum plane.
What is pressure altitude used for?
It is used to calculate performance and to fly at flight levels.
What are the three definitions for density altitude?
- Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature.
- The altitude above sea level in standard atmospheric conditions at which a given atmospheric density is found.
- The altitude at which a plane feels like it’s flying.
What is the density altitude formula?
The formula is 120 multiplied by the outside air temperature (OAT) minus the standard temperature, then added to the pressure altitude.
What is true airspeed?
True airspeed (TAS) is the speed of the airplane relative to the air. It is calibrated airspeed (CAS) corrected for errors due to altitude and temperature.
What is calibrated airspeed?
Calibrated airspeed (CAS) is indicated airspeed corrected for instrument installation errors. At standard atmospheric conditions at mean sea level (MSL), CAS equals TAS.
Navigation
What is magnetic variation?
Magnetic variation is the difference between magnetic north and true north.
What is magnetic deviation?
Magnetic deviation occurs when the magnetic field inside the airplane causes the compass needle to deflect from its normal reading. For example, 9° east of 90° makes the magnetic course 81°.
Engine and Propeller Systems
What are the four cycles of an engine?
The four cycles are:
- Intake
- Compression
- Power
- Exhaust
Diamond DA40 Electrical system.
The Diamond DA40 uses a 28V Direct Current system powered by a 28V, 70-amp alternator.
How does a constant speed propeller work?
A constant-speed propeller varies the pitch of its blades. As the blade angle increases, the propeller produces more lift (thrust).
What is the proper prop setting for takeoff/climb?
For takeoff and climb, use low pitch, high RPM, and less speed.
What is the proper prop setting for cruise?
For cruise, use high pitch, low RPM, faster speed, and better fuel efficiency.
How does the propeller move?
The propeller blade pitch is changed hydraulically using engine oil.
So, when you pull the blue lever back for the propeller, what happens?
Pulling the blue lever back turns the screw left, releasing tension on the speeder spring. The flyweights fly out due to the lower spring tension, lifting the valve and pumping oil into the prop hub. The engine oil forces the piston backward, increasing the blade angle. As the blade angle increases, engine RPM decreases, causing the flyweights to return to equilibrium, lowering the valve and stopping oil flow to the prop hub. By pulling the prop lever back, you adjust the prop to take a bigger ‘bite’ of air, increasing the torque required to turn the prop.
So, when you push the blue lever forward for the propeller, what happens?
Pushing the lever forward turns the screw right, which increases tension on the speeder spring. The flyweights fall in because of the increased spring tension, lowering the valve and allowing oil to escape the prop hub into the oil sump. The engine oil escapes the hub, and the spring forces the piston forward, decreasing the blade angle. As the blade angle decreases, engine RPM increases, causing the flyweights to return to equilibrium, raising the valve and stopping oil flow to the prop hub. Pushing the lever forward gives you more instantaneous power because the engine doesn’t need to work as hard to turn the prop. This is useful for go-arounds.
What happens to your constant speed propeller if you lose engine oil?
Most single-engine plane propellers are designed to ‘fail forward.’ If you run out of engine oil, the propeller will automatically move to the low pitch/high RPM setting, which is ideal for takeoff and landing. This happens because the spring behind the prop hub piston forces the piston forward, and the natural twisting motion of the blades through the air causes them to return to the low pitch/high RPM setting.
How does the pitot tube get airspeed?
The pitot tube measures airspeed by using dynamic pressure and static pressure, which are both measured from the static port.
